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History is a story written not only in textbooks but also in the tangible traces left behind by people from the past. For centuries, scholars, archaeologists, and historians have pieced together the lives, cultures, and beliefs of ancient civilisations using historical records. These records — whether written, engraved, or illustrated — allow us to reconstruct the past with accuracy and depth. From ancient manuscripts to archaeological discoveries, each record offers a unique glimpse into the complex world of our ancestors.

In this article, we explore seven historical records that fundamentally changed how we understand ancient civilisations. Each one has contributed not only to archaeology but also to our appreciation of ancient civilisations and their achievements.

1. The Rosetta Stone

Discovered in 1799 near the town of Rosetta in Egypt, the Rosetta Stone is perhaps the most famous historical document in the study of ancient civilisations. This granodiorite stele contains the same text written in three scripts: Greek, Demotic, and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Before its discovery, hieroglyphs were a mystery, largely indecipherable to scholars.

The Rosetta Stone provided the key to understanding ancient manuscripts of Egypt, allowing linguists like Jean-François Champollion to decode hieroglyphics systematically. Through this breakthrough, scholars could access centuries of Egyptian records, including royal decrees, religious texts, and cultural narratives. Its impact on archaeology and the study of Egyptian history cannot be overstated. Today, it remains a symbol of the power of historical documents to unlock the secrets of the past.

2. The Code of Hammurabi

Dating back to around 1754 BCE, the Code of Hammurabi is one of the oldest deciphered historical records in human history. Found in Babylon (modern-day Iraq), this stele contains a series of laws engraved in cuneiform script. The text outlines rules covering commerce, family relations, labour, property, and justice, providing insight into the social and legal structures of ancient civilisations.

For archaeologists and historians, the Code of Hammurabi revealed that legal systems in Mesopotamia were sophisticated and standardised. By studying these archaeological discoveries, we understand how early societies balanced authority and fairness, maintained social order, and preserved cultural norms. This document demonstrates that historical records are not just relics but practical guides that governed daily life thousands of years ago.

3. The Dead Sea Scrolls

The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered between 1947 and 1956 in caves near Qumran, are a collection of ancient manuscripts that profoundly influenced our understanding of ancient civilisations in the Levant. These scrolls include texts from the Hebrew Bible, sectarian writings, and previously unknown religious literature.

Their discovery revolutionised both archaeology and biblical studies. Scholars could compare different textual versions, trace the development of religious thought, and better understand the cultural context of the Second Temple period. The Dead Sea Scrolls illustrate how historical documents can shed light not only on religious traditions but also on everyday life, laws, and community organisation within ancient civilisations.

4. The Epic of Gilgamesh

The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the earliest known pieces of literature in human history. Originating from Mesopotamia around 2100 BCE, it is preserved on ancient manuscripts made of clay tablets written in cuneiform. The epic narrates the adventures of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, exploring themes of friendship, mortality, and the quest for immortality.

This literary masterpiece offers critical insight into the values, beliefs, and societal norms of ancient civilisations. For archaeologists, the discovery of Gilgamesh tablets in sites like Nineveh helped connect archaeological discoveries with literary traditions. It shows that historical documents were not only administrative or legal in nature but also served as vehicles for storytelling, moral lessons, and cultural memory.

5. The Behistun Inscription

The Behistun Inscription, carved into a cliff in modern-day Iran, is a monumental historical record created by King Darius I of Persia around 500 BCE. Written in three languages — Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian — it records Darius’s rise to power, political events, and military campaigns.

The inscription played a pivotal role in deciphering cuneiform scripts, much like the Rosetta Stone did for hieroglyphics. For scholars of archaeology and linguistics, it opened doors to understanding Persian administration, governance, and cultural interactions within the Achaemenid Empire. Today, the Behistun Inscription exemplifies how historical documents serve as both political propaganda and invaluable sources of knowledge about ancient civilisations.

6. The Vinland Map

The Vinland Map, dated to the 15th century, is controversial but influential in studying early exploration. Purportedly depicting parts of North America before Columbus, this map challenges traditional narratives of discovery and expands our understanding of how Europeans may have interacted with distant lands.

For archaeologists and historians, the map highlights how historical documents — even disputed ones — can provoke new research into ancient civilisations and their knowledge of geography. It also demonstrates the significance of cartography in understanding trade, exploration, and cultural exchange. By studying such archaeological discoveries, we gain perspective on how civilisations perceived the world beyond their immediate borders.

7. The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty

The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty are among the most extensive and meticulously maintained historical records in human history. Covering over five centuries (1392–1897), these documents detail political, economic, social, and cultural developments in Korea. Written in Classical Chinese, they were compiled by official historians and preserved with strict protocols to ensure accuracy and completeness.

These annals are invaluable for understanding the governance, daily life, and cultural achievements of the Joseon Dynasty. They also demonstrate how archaeological discoveries can extend beyond physical artifacts to include written records, offering detailed perspectives on ancient civilisations. Scholars use these documents to reconstruct events, study societal norms, and trace changes in politics, technology, and culture over centuries.

How These Historical Records Changed Our Understanding

These seven historical documents exemplify how archaeology and textual evidence together enhance our understanding of ancient civilisations. They reveal several key lessons:

1. Societal Structure and Governance: Legal codes, annals, and inscriptions show how societies were organised, governed, and regulated.

2. Cultural Values and Beliefs: Literary works like the Epic of Gilgamesh reveal moral codes, religious beliefs, and philosophical ideas.

3. Daily Life and Economy: Documents, scrolls, and inscriptions detail the everyday lives of people, including trade, agriculture, and labour systems.

4. Language and Communication: Deciphering scripts like hieroglyphs and cuneiform allows us to read messages from the past, bridging millennia of human communication.

5. Interactions Between Civilisations: Maps, annals, and inscriptions show how ancient societies traded, explored, and interacted with each other.

By combining archaeological discoveries with careful analysis of historical documents, scholars reconstruct complex narratives of the past, enriching our understanding of human history.

Conclusion

The Rosetta Stone, the Code of Hammurabi, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Behistun Inscription, the Vinland Map, and the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty are far more than relics. They are keys to understanding the depth, complexity, and brilliance of ancient civilisations. Through these historical records, we glimpse laws, beliefs, stories, and events that shaped human progress.

Historical documents remain essential in archaeology, offering a bridge between the physical remnants of the past and the intangible heritage of ideas and culture. As new archaeological discoveries continue to emerge, they add layers of insight, reminding us that history is not static but a constantly evolving narrative. By studying these documents and manuscripts, we honour the ingenuity, wisdom, and creativity of our ancestors while gaining lessons that remain relevant today.

In short, historical records are not just remnants of the past — they are living windows into civilisations that defined humanity’s journey. From legal codes to epic tales, each record adds a brushstroke to the vivid portrait of our shared history.